Osiris

Image: Osiris in green as representative of
vegetation and fertility.

Mythology of Osiris

The developing character of Osiris:

It seems likely that Osiris was originally a fertility god with chthonic connections based in his identification with the earth, and that he was also associated at some point with the Nile's inundation, perhaps through its resultant alluvium and fertility. Yet the direct association of Osiris with agriculture seems to have occurred later. As time progressed and the cult of Osiris spread throughout Egypt, Osiris assimilated many other deities and rapidly took on attributes and characteristics. It seems probable, for example, that Osiris took over the story of an earthly ruler who was resurrected after his death from the ancient god Andjety of Busiris whose insignia were also the same as those used by Osiris. Many of the epithets accorded Osiris may also be seen to have been taken over from other Egyptian gods. From the ancient jackal and Khenty-imentiu of Abydos Osiris took the title 'foremost of the westerners', and from Anubis he took the title 'he who is the god's tent', relating to the temporary booth of embalming, etc. Many of the titles and epithets applied to him also reflected the god's nature as a funerary deity, which if not original to Osiris certainly became central in his identity. Chief among these, the title wenenefer, from which the Greek name Onnophris was taken, probably means something like 'he who is in everlastingly good condition', showing the god's victory over the decay of death. His seemingly anomalous title 'Lord of the Living' is also a purposeful denial of death and refers to those 'living' in the netherworld. An important development of Osiris, however, which went beyond his basic identity as a resurrected god and ruler of the underworld, was the role he played as judge of the dead.

Image: Enigmatic depiction of Osiris as a reclining ithyphallic figure associated with the sun god Ra. The scene cannot be ascribed to a known funerary 'book' but appears in the tomb of Ramesses IX and in certain funerary papyri. Papyrus, Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

The mythic cycle of Osiris: In the Pyramids Texts Osiris is of primary importance as one of the three most frequently mentioned Egyptian gods along with Horus and Ra. It seems clear that once Osiris began to rise to widespread importance the priests of Heliopolis incorporated him along with certain other deities into their own theological framework. The Osiride legends thus incorporate Osiris' 'siblings' Isis, Nephthys, and Seth as well as his son Horus, and represent the most extensive mythic cycle in ancinet Egyptian culture. In their developed form the core myths were preserved by the Greek writer Plutarch in his work De Iside et Osiride,where essentially it is claimed that the god once ruled Egypt as a king until he was murdered and cruelly dismembered and scattered by his jealous brother Seth. Due to the loyalty and dedication of his wife Isis and with the help of their sister Nephthys, Osiris was found and revivified and became the god of the netherworld. Horus, the posthumously conceived son of Osiris and Isis, avenged his father's death by defeating Seth in time became the king of all Egypt as the rightful heir of Osiris. This story had great appeal both as theological rationale for the Egyptian monarchial system in which the deceased king as equated with Osiris and was followed to the throne by his 'Horus' successor, and also as a story which proffered the hope of immortality through resurrection - which had a universal appeal and was claimed at first by kings and eventually by nobles and commoners as well. On the other hand, it is equally true that a chthonic god Osiris retained a measure of fearsomeness and could be regarded with awe. The Pyramids Texts preserve this darker aspect of the god in spells which imply the king's protection from Osiris by Ra, as do the Coffin Texts, which speak of Osiris as a threatening power in some cases, and the Book of the Dead - which along with the god's positive titles also lists epithets such as 'the terrible'. Overall, however, the human origin, vulnerability, and resurrection ofthe god and the emphasis on family devotion and loyalty which runs through the Osiride myths menat that Osiris was viewed as a benign deity, who represented the clearest idea of physical salvation available to the ancient Egyptians.

The relationship of Osiris with other Egyptian gods: Outside of the Osiride myths themselves Osiris was associated with several other deities. For example, the ba or soul of the god was thought to reside in the sacred ram Ba-neb-djedet which was worshipped in the Delta town of Mendes; and the Apis bull of Memphis, normally associated with Ptah, was seen as a manifestation of Osiris. A complex and particularly important relationship existed between Osiris and the sun god Ra. Although Osiris was incorporated into the Heliopolitan theological system at a relatively early date, the god continued to grow in importance and by New Kingdom times his stature as an independent god was considerable, as is seen in titles which were applied to him such as 'lord of the universe', 'ruler of eternity' and 'king of the gods'. Osiris' position became, in fact, comparable to that of the sun god himself. He came to be regarded not only as the counterpart of Ra in the netherworld, but also in some cases as the sun god's own body - so that Osiris and Ra came to be considered as representing the body andsoul, respectively, of a single great god. The solar cycle was thus imagined as the ba of Ra descending into the underworld to unite with Osiris as his own corpse. Nevertheless, Osiris and Ra maintained independent characteristics, identities and realms. The fusion of the two Egyptian gods was mainly a product of New Kingdom theological expression in specific contexts and Egyptian theology never totally overcame the dichotomy implicit in the idea of Ra as lord of the heavens and Osiris as lord of the underworld. Osiris was also mythologically connected with the moon, however, though this was a relatively minor association. The ultimate fusion of Osiris with other deities occurred in the reign of Ptolemy I who introduced the hybrid Serapis as a fusion of Osiris, Apis and various Greek gods - an artificial creation which nevertheless become one of the most important deities of Egypt at the end of the dynastic age. The Greeks themselves associated Osiris with their own god Dionysus.

Images: Nefertari before the throne of Osiris 'Wennefer ... ruler of eternity'. Diminutive figures of the four 'sons of Horus (or Osiris)' stand before the seated god. 19th Dynasty. Tomb of Nefertari, Valley of the Queens. Western Thebes.

Iconography of Osiris

Osiris is usually represented in anthropomorphic form, as a human mummy whose skin may be white - perhaps to symbolize the mummy wrapping - or more usually black as the color of chthonic deities and of the dark Nile alluvium, or green as representative of vegetation and fertility. The god is invariably depicted standing or sitting stiffly erect with both legs together and with his hands projecting from his wrappings to grasp the crook and flail which are his chief attributes. These items of regalia have been thought to represent pastoral implements, but the origin of the flail is not clear and it may have had other meanings. In any event, it seems more likely that both items were taken over together from royal regalia as they present in representations of kings from time of Narmer on. Sometimes the god holds a was scepter, but this is clearly a later usage taken over from the iconography of other Egyptian gods. Regional variation has been shown to affect the manner in which the regalia are held. In Middle Egyptian Osiride figures the arms are usually held at the same level, whereas in Upper Egypt they are frequently crossed at the wrists. The earliest known representation of Osiris, which dates to the 5th dynasty (a partial representation on a block from the reign of King Djedkare-Isesi), depicts the god wearing a divine wig; but from the Middle Kingdom he is frequently shown wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt - possibly indicating his Upper Egyptian Origin - and this crown is found in Osiride iconography throughout all later periods. Another crown closely associated with the god is the so-called Atef Crown - similar to the White Crown but with two side feathers and occasionally with  horizontal horns and solar disks attached. This crown, either placed directly on the head or atop a royal wig, appears to have originated with the god Andjety, however, and to have a secondary association with Osiris. Osiris is sometimes shown wearing other crowns and, especially in later periods, these can be of complex, fused forms, but the White and Atef forms remain standard. From New Kingdom times the god is often shown wearing a broad collar and sometimes bracelets worn at the wrist. Later iconographic forms also often tend to incorporate an increasing amount of detail in their depiction of the god's mummy wrappings - as in instnaces showing bands crossed over the chest, a sash tied at the waist, a counterpoise attached to the broad collar, etc. The association between Osiris and the symbol known to the ancient Egyptians as the djed column or pillar meant that the god was often depicted in the form of the djed, sometmes as a partially-personified pillar with human arms or as an anthropoid mummy with a djed-pillar head. Although the death of Osiris was never depicted in ancient Egyptian art, the god is frequently shown lying on the funerary bier, mmourned by Isis and Nephthys.

Osiris' close connection with kingship and his role as king of the dead mean that he is probably more often depicted enthroned than any other deity. In funerary scenes the deceased is thus frequently shown before the enthroned god who is supported, at his rear, by Isis and Nephthys (less frequently by Hathor as mistress of the west). When depicted in this seated manner, the god is sometimes shown with the diminutive figures of the four sons of Horus before him or, in other cases, the so-called imiut fetish.

Due to the gradual unification of solar and Osirian ideas during the New Kingdom, Osiris is also sometimes depicted in the syncretized form of Osiris-Ra or Ra-Osiris. Usually this fusion takes the form of a mummification body (Osiris) with the head of a falcon, ram, or beetle (Ra) as seen in the tomb of Nefertari in the Valley of the Queens, which depicts a ram-headed mummy identified both as 'Ra resting in Osiris' and 'Osiris resting in Ra'. The relationship between Osiris and Ra is also seen in many representational works which juxtapose the symbols of the respective Egyptian gods in the same composition - such as mummy and falcon, djed and sun disk, etc. Because Osiris was also mythologically associated with the moon, the god may sometimes be represented by the lunar disk - especially in depictions where this is shown with Anubis.

Image: The crook, flail and feathered Atef Crown, although taken over by Osiris, became unmistakable attributes of the netherworld god. Basalt statue of Osiris, from the tomb
of Psamtik, Saqqara, 26th Dynasty. Egyptian Museum. Cairo.

Worship of Osiris

Image: Plants sprout from a mummy in a visual image reminiscent of the seeded 'grain-Osiris' figures which were sometimes placed in Egyptian tombs. Coffin detail, Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.